The Greek Dark Age was a 200-year period in Greek history in which cities collapsed, writing was forgotten; it was a time of warfare, poverty, and limited communication with the outside world. Beginning at about 900-800 BCE, there was an increase in population, new developments in agriculture, and the adoption of iron for making tools. By about 750 BCE, city-states emerged followed by colonies founded by the mother city. While we speak of Greek civilization at this time, there was no Greek state, no political unification of the various Greek city-states. However, Greeks were united by some common cultural features such as language and religion. Briefly described below are some of the features of ancient Greek religion.
The religion of Ancient Greece was not similar to modern religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. First of all, there was no word comparable to the modern English concept of religion. While Greek religion was polytheistic, there were no sacred writings or books, no dogmas, no spiritual teaching, and no revelations handed down by the gods. In his entry on religion in the Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, Thomas Harrison writes:
“Greek religion, moreover, did not—like modern Christianity—focus on a set of dogmas or principles to which a man or woman consciously chooses (or declines) to adhere.”
In his entry on mythology in the Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, Professor D.P.M. Weerakkody writes:
“There was, therefore, a great variety of beliefs and practices, and a resulting multitude of variations in the myths.”
In his book The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, Nigel Rodgers writes:
“Official Greek religion lacked two things central to many religions: a belief in the afterlife and a body of sacred writings.”
Sacrifice
The central Greek religious ritual was sacrifice: giving something of value to a god to obtain the god’s favor. Rituals of sacrifice were performed for the overall health and prosperity of the community as well as for personal requests. Sacrifice was the primary way of communicating with the gods and other divinities to establish rapport with the worshippers; it was a way of averting the god’s wrath.
In his book Egypt, Greece, and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean, Charles Freeman writes:
“The practice which defined the Greeks’ relationship with their gods more than any other was sacrifice, an offering of wine, water, or a burnt offering to gods above or those divinities or heroes in the earth below. As could be expected, sacrifices were normally carried out according to strict rituals.”
In his entry on religion in the Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, Thomas Harrison puts it this way:
“The relationship between men and gods in Greek religion is often portrayed in modern accounts as more contractual than personal: the proper observation of ritual duties—especially of sacrifice, accompanied by prayer—was rewarded by good fortune in the form of, for example, a good harvest, the birth of children, or through negative blessings such as the absence of disease or a journey free of shipwreck.”
One of the major sacrificial offers was that of an animal which would be ritually killed. This ritual would usually involve: (1) leading the animal to the altar, (2) purifying the animal with water and barley grain, and (3) cutting the animal’s throat. In his entry on cult in the Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, Albert Schachter reports:
“Depending on the nature of the deity, the animals sacrificed were entirely consumed by fire, or were shared as food by both gods and men.”
The entrails of the sacrificed animal were important to divination. In his entry on sacrifice in the Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, Andromache Karanika-Dimarogona writes:
“The entrails were observed by the priests because their condition was supposed to provide omens. That is why sacrifices were often made at critical moments in mythology as well as in history, before mounting an expedition or taking an important decision.”
Priests
In ancient Greek religion there was no formal priesthood with the authority to preach dogma, or to interpret correct beliefs and behavior. In his entry on priesthood in the Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, Robert Garland writes:
“Since Greek religion did not concern itself much with morality, priests never functioned as spiritual advisers; their duties were primarily those of liturgical and administrative nature. They were debarred from playing any part in the ceremonies connected with birth, marriage, and death because of the pollution that was believed to be associated with these events.”
Robert Garland also reports:
“So far as we know, priests did not have to undergo any formal training, though they obviously had to be adept in the performing of their religious ritual. Since most temples were open to the public only a few days of the year, the holding of a priesthood was generally a part-time occupation. Priests were not paid for their services, though they were entitled to portions of meat from all the sacrifices performed in the sanctuary over which they had charge.”
Gods and heroes
Greek religion, like many ancient religions, was polytheistic, meaning that there were many gods. The Greek gods were believed to have power over humans and nature, but at the same time they had the needs for sex, food, and drink. Like humans, the gods felt anger, remorse, lust, and other emotions. Their actions, recounted in Greek mythology, are often very human-like.
Greek mythology also recounts the stories of epic voyages, battles, and adventures of heroes such as Theseus, Agamemnon, Achilles, Herakles, Odysseus, and others. Heroes were models for living; they were handsome, strong, respectful, courageous. Even with their faults, they embodied the ideals of honor, nobility, and perseverance. Albert Schachter writes:
“Heroes were dead humans whose mortal remains were worshipped, usually at the place of their burial. The purpose of sacrifices in these cases was to rejuvenate and/or revive the heroes so that they might come to the aid of the worshippers. Heroes were usually bound to a restricted geographical area.”
Olympian gods
The most important of the Greek pantheon were the twelve gods who lived on Mount Olympus. In his entry on gods and goddess in the Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, Andromache Karanika-Dimarogona writes:
“The notion of 12 gods and goddesses was established early in the consciousness of the Greeks, but the catalogue of them varies.”
These gods are briefly described below.
Zeus: paramount god of the Greek pantheon. Zeus was the god of the sky and weather. He was regarded as the dispenser of justice. In an article in Archaeology, Jason Urbanus writes:
“Zeus, scion of the Titans, ruler of the Olympian gods, and infamous seducer of both mortals and immortals alike. Within the canon of Greek mythology, there is no figure as central and none as sacred.”
Hera: the queen of the gods. Hera was both wife and sister to Zeus. She was the patroness of women and the protectress of cities.
Poseidon: god of the sea and earthquakes. Poseidon was the brother of Zeus and Hades. He was also known as the tamer of horses. The eighth day of the month is sacred to Poseidon.
Athena: virgin goddess of war and crafts. Athena was a daughter of Zeus and the patron goddess of Athens.
Apollo: son of Zeus. Apollo was the god of music, healing, poetry, and prophecy.
Artemis: virgin goddess of the hunt and wildlife. Artemis was the daughter of Zeus and the twin sister of Apollo. She was protectress of women giving birth.
Hermes: son of Zeus. Hermes was the messenger of the gods and the god of trade and travel.
Demeter: goddess of corn and fertility. Demeter was the patroness of agriculture. She was a sister to Zeus.
Dionysos: god of wine and intoxication and the bringer of joy.
Aphrodite: goddess of love, beauty, and sex. Aphrodite was the patroness of prostitutes and sailors. She was the wife of Hephaistos.
Hephaistos: god of fire and crafts, Hephaistos was associated with volcanos. He was the husband of Aphrodite.
Ares: god of war and lover of Aphrodite.
Other gods
In addition to the Olympian gods, there were many other Greek gods. Some of these included:
Asklepios: god of medicine, he was the son of Appollo. Throughout the Greek world there were sanctuaries to Asklepios. His primary symbol was the sacred snake.
Hades: god of the underworld. Hades was the brother of Zeus and Poseidon and the husband of Persephone. There was no cult following of Hades and he was not the major subject of any myth.
Herakles: a Greek hero who came to be worshipped as a god.
Hestia: the virgin goddess of the hearth. Hestia was the sister of Zeus. Greek colonists would carry fire from the hearth of the temple dedicated to Hestia in their mother city’s main public building.
Nike: goddess of victory in military battles and athletic contests.
The End
The practice of ancient Greek religion slowly disappeared under the dominance of Christianity. In his entry on gods and goddesses in the Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. Andromache Karanika-Dimarogona writes:
“Despite many attempts by the Church to eradicate the practice of ancient religion it is still alive today in some folk customs and ideologies. The ancient gods and their spheres of influence have been fused with the cult of the saints: St Nicholas is the protector of seamen; a certain St Demeter was worshipped until recently in the region of Eleusis. Some saints have specific roles as healers or guardians against evil.”
Students around the world continue to read about the Greek gods, goddesses, and heroes in mythology classes.
More about religion
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Religion 101: The "danger" of books, libraries, and religious freedom