Indians 101: American Indian religions 100 years ago, 1922

Since the founding of the United States, there has been an assumption that American Indians should abandon their religions and become Christians. Federal laws regarding Indians are based on the Discovery Doctrine which states that Christian nations, such as the United States, have the right and perhaps the obligation to rule non-Christian nations, such as the American Indian nations. By 1922, Indian religions were still illegal but, in spite of constant pressure by the U.S. government and government-sanctioned Christian (primarily Protestant) missionaries, some traditional practices continued.

Some non-Indian associations, such as the Indian Welfare League, the Indian Defense Association, and the National Association to Help the Indian, were sympathetic to the retention of Indian religion. A number of prominent authors and influential people—including John Willard Schulz and Edward S. Curtis—were members of these groups.

Briefly described below are some of the American Indian religious events from 100 years ago, in 1922.

Tohono O’odham

The Tohono O’odham on Arizona’s Papago Reservation held Náwai’t ceremonies which included the ritual consumption of tiswin to break an extended drought. The Indian Office had the agency police raid the villages of Big Fields and Santa Rosa where several hundred participants were dispersed. The police arrested several leaders and Keepers of the Smoke for making tiswin. While the Indian Office continued to warn people about this ceremony, the Tohono O’odham continued to hold the ceremony in secret.

Tiswin is an alcoholic beverage made from the fruit of the giant Saguaro Cactus. The Náwai’t ceremony includes ritual Mocking Bird speeches, songs taught to the people by the supernatural being I’itoi which bring the clouds down, and the consumption of large quantities of tiswin. The consumption of tiswin results in vomiting, a recognized ceremonial feature which is called “throwing up the clouds.”

Zuni

In New Mexico, the Indian Office bypassed Indian consent in handing over Zuni land for the re-establishment of a Catholic mission. This intensified factionalism within the Pueblo.

Hopi

In Arizona, word of the efforts of the Indian Office to prohibit Pueblo religions in New Mexico reached the Hopi. Several Hopi leaders decided to meet in Winslow, a non-Indian town which is located off the reservation. They feared that if they were to meet on the reservation that the Indian Office police would arrest them. Meeting with the Hopi was the distinguished writer James Willard Schulz.

Schulz heard the Hopis complain about threats from government if they continued their religion. One elder stated that he would rather be shot down by the government while doing his religion than try to live without it. In his book Religion and Hopi Life, John Loftin reports:

“The Hopi stood firm and continued to observe their traditional ceremonial calendar.”

In Arizona, Hopi Bow Clan member K.T. Johnson, a convert to the Mennonite Church, set up his altar in public and burned it.

Northern Cheyenne

In Montana, a delegation from the Northern Cheyenne reservation traveled to Washington, D.C. to meet with the Assistant Commissioner of Indian Affairs and ask that they be allowed to continue their traditional religious ceremonies. They were told that all regulations must be observed and that the activities of the medicine men could not be allowed. The Indian Office wrote to the Indian agent:

“You will therefore permit no deviation from the regulations in question. Please keep the Office advised relative to the medicine man situation on your reservation.”